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The Inherent Complexities of Gene–Environment Interactions

Child Study Center and PACE Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; and Department of Psychology, Moscow State University, Russia.

Address correspondence to Dr. Elena L. Grigorenko, Yale University, PACE Center, 340 Edwards St., PO Box 208358, New Haven, CT 06520-8358. E-mail: elena.grigorenko{at}yale.edu

The article outlines the complexities of gene–environment interactions in the determination of human disease, especially as they relate to aging, and stresses the importance of continuing such studies, in spite of their inherent difficulties. First, a capsule review of the literature pertaining to studies of gene–environment interactions is presented, and designs and methodologies used to detect these interactions are briefly discussed. Second, research questions and problems that can be addressed as outcomes of gene–environment interaction studies are exemplified. Third, a number of illustrative examples of gene–environment interactions are presented. Fourth, various types of gene–environment interactions are briefly discussed. Fifth, concluding remarks are offered, and possibilities of studying gene–environment interaction within social and biological research on aging are outlined.